Nutritive values of Cocoyam leaves on the growth of African catfish;Clarias gariepinus

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fish is an important source of animal protein for many households. According to FAO (2007), fish contribute more than 60% of the world supply of protein, especially in the developing countries. As a maritime nation with a vast population of over 160 million people and a coastline measuring approximately 853 kilometers, fish production as an enterprise possesses the capacity to contribute significantly to the agricultural sector (Osagie, 2012). With an annual fish demand in the country of about 2.66 million tonnes, and a paltry domestic production of about 780,000 tonnes, the demand-supply gap stands at a staggering 1.8 million tonnes. Despite the popularity of farming in Nigeria, the fish farming industry can best be described as being at the infant stage when compared to the large market potential for its production and marketing (Nwiro, 2012). Fish supply is from four major sources viz., artisanal fisheries, industrial trawlers, aquaculture and imported frozen fish (Akinrotimi, Abu & Aranyo, 2011). The Niger Delta contributes more than 50% of the entire domestic Nigerian fish supply, being blessed with abundance of both fresh, brackish and marine water bodies that are inhabited by a wide array of both fin fish and non-fish fauna that supports artisanal fisheries (Akankali & Jamabo, 2011).
The Nigerian fishing industry comprises of three major sub sectors namely the artisanal, industrial and aquaculture of which awareness on the potential of aquaculture to contribute to domestic fish production has continued to increase in the country (Adewuyi, Phillip, Ayinde & Akerele, 2010). A right step towards arresting the demand-supply deficit for fish is aquaculture, which involves raising fish under controlled environment where their feeding, growth, reproduction and health can be closely monitored (Ejiola & Yinka, 2012). Aquaculture practices as a business venture is capable of bringing significant development in the rural and urban areas by improving family income, providing employment opportunities and reducing problems of food supply and security (Akinrotimi Abu, Ibemere, & Opara, 2009).
Despite the abundant fisheries resources and the relatively high consumption of fish in Nigeria (FDF, 2008), it’s domestic output of 0.85 million metric tonnes in 2010 still falls short of demand of 3.02 million metric tonnes (CBN, 2007; FDF, 2008; FDF, 2010). However a deficit of 2.17 million metric tonnes is required to meet the ever increasing demand for fish in Nigeria. This large deficit between the demand and supply of fish is augmented by massive importation of frozen fish which is a rigorous drain on the exchange earnings of the nation (FDF, 2008).
It is estimated that global production from capture fisheries and aquaculture supplied about 132.2 million tonnes of fish in 2003. Of this total, 32.9 million tonnes were from aquaculture production (FAO, 2004). Aquaculture has seen a worldwide expansion over the past 20 years and it seems that growth is set to continue (Naylor et al., 2000). World total demand for fish and fishery products is projected to expand by almost 50 million tonnes to 183 million tonnes by 2015, and it is expected that out of this increase, 73% will come from aquaculture, accounting for 39% of global fish production (FAO, 2004). Alongside, and perhaps partly due to this rapid expansion, the welfare of farmed fish has received increasing attention. In spite of this potential, aquaculture in most developing nations including Nigeria is faced with inadequate supply of quality fish feed at economic price. This problem is worse during the dry season of the year when the cost of feedstuffs, most especially cereals, usually soared because the natural demand for out-weighed the supply. In an attempt to solving this problem of high feed cost, a lot of research efforts have been geared into alternative novel ingredients in formulating practical diets for farmed fish (Fagbenro et al., 2003).
Feed is one of the major inputs in aquaculture production and fish feed Technology is one of the least development sectors of aquaculture particularly in Africa and other developing countries of the World (Gabriel et al, 2007). High cost of fish feed was observed as one of the problems hampering aquacultural development in Nigeria (Gabriel et al., 2007). Fish feed account for at least 60% of the total cost of production (Gabriel et al., 2007).
New Cocoyam plantcommonly known as “Tannia” is originated from the northern part of South America with leaves known as arrow leaf elephant’s ear; it is a flowering plant in the genus “Xanthosoma” which produces an edible starchy tuber. Tannia belongs to kingdom plantae, order of Alismatales in the family of Araceae with the scientific name called Xanthosoma sagittifolium.All tannia are edible aroids, with large, broad leaves on stems growing from a corm or enlarged starchy stem with numerous roots. The main difference between X. sagittifolium and C. esculenta is in the leaf shape; Xanthosoma spp have sagittate (arrow shaped leaves) whereas the leaves of Colocasia spp are peltate (rounded/shield shaped).The younger full leaves are best to eat. They are often used as edible wraps for food parcels but must be well cooked (preferably boiled) to reduce the itchiness caused by calcium oxalate crystals in the leaf tissueand saponin which is also irritant substance present in the leaves.Taro leaves are good sourcesof the carotenoids, lutein and beta-carotene, proteinand certain minerals.

JUSTIFICATION
With the growing trend of aquaculture in Nigeria, there is need to find an alternative way of producing fish feed at low cost because fish feed account for at least 60% of the total cost of production in aquaculture (Gabriel et al., 2007) and Protein is the fundamental unit of fish growth and tissue elaboration (Hanley, 1991).  This has necessitated research into the protein requirements of cultured fishes (Jauncey et al., 1983; De Silva and Perera 1985; Siddiqui et al., 1988; Fagbenro and Nwanna, 1999).Majority of feeds used in aquaculture are imported, expensive and not readily available when needed.  Therefore, there is need for feeds whose ingredients can be accessed for the production of quality and sufficient feed requirement in aquaculture production. Apart from been readily available they must also meet the nutritional requirement of the fish so as to maximize profit under a short period of time.
Many livestock farmers in Nigeria feed agro industrial by-products to their animals due tohigh cost of conventional feed ingredients. Agro industrial by-products are however of lownutritive value, and non-conventional feed stuffs such as tannia can be fed in place of agro industrialby-products which are of low nutritive value. Two types of crops that share thename cocoyam are Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Colocasia esculenta. Tannia has beensaid to have the potential of being used in ruminant nutrition. It has been fed to snails; fish; pigs and poultry. This is to reduce the cost of feed production in fish farming business.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this project is to evaluate the effects of differently processed of cocoyam leaves; Xanthosoma sagittifolium on the growth and nutrient utilization of African catfish; Clarias gariepinus.
To determine the effects of different processing methods on the nutritional values of cocoyam leaves.



CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
The African Sharp tooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus (Burchell(1822)) has an almost Pan-African distribution, rangingfrom the Nile River Basin to West Africa and fromAlgeria to Southern Africa (Cambray 2003). Fish like other animals, have a requirement for essential nutrients in order to grow properly. In the wild, such essential foods are available for the fish to forage. In doing this, they are able to meet their body needs by feeding extensively on these foods. To successfully meet these needs, there are some variable factors such as the type of environment, season of the year, location which determines the abundance of the food and the distance to which the fish migrates when foraging. Such natural environments are comprised of lakes, streams, rivers, seas, oceans and other water bodies. Fishes in these water bodies, subsist essentially by feeding on a variety of foods such as the small microscopic organisms known as plankton, aquatic plants and animals including insects, snails, worms and decaying organic matter. In this process, some fish species even feed on others. When fish are removed from their natural environment, to an artificial environment, enough food must be supplied to enable them grow. This could be in the form of complete diets, where the artificial diet furnishes all the nutrients required by the fish or supplementary diets, where part of the nutritional needs of the fish are obtained from the natural environment (Balfour and Yoel, 1981; Ekelemu and Ogba, 2005). These artificial feeds used in feeding fish, are a well compounded mixture of feedstuff which may be in pellets or mash form. These feeds are good for feeding fingerlings, juveniles and adults, depending on pellet size. Artificial feeding of fish has been known to have the advantage of allowing high stocking density, promotes fast growth rate, stimulates rapid growth of plankton through the biodegradation of uneaten food, which serves as fertilizer and enabling the farmer to observe the feeding behaviour of fish especially when fed on floating pellets (Balfour and Yoel., 1981; Webster etal., 1999; Adikwu et al, 1999).

2.1.Taxonomy of African Catfish
Although more than 100 different species of theGenus Clarias have been described in Africa, a recentsystematic revision based on morphological, anatomical andbiographical studies has been carried out by Teugels (1982a,1982b, 1984), who recognized 32 valid species. The largeAfrican species which are of interest for aquaculture belong tothe subgenus Clarias. In earlier systematic studies on thelarge African catfish species Boulenger (1911) as well asDavid (1935) recognized five species of within this subgenus.Both authors used morphological criteria such as form ofvomerine teeth, ratio of vomerine to premaxillary teeth bandand the number of gill rakers. The five species were;
* Clarias anguilarus
* Clarias senegalensis
* Clarias lazera
* Clarias mossambicus
* Clarias gariepinus
In 1982, Teugels revised the subgenus Clariasand found only two species (C. gariepinus and C. anguillaris)if the number of gill rakers on the first branchial arch wasconsidered; for C. anguillaris the number of gill rakers wasrather low (14 to 40) while for C. gariepinus was relativelyhigh.


2.2. Natural Geographical Distribution
Clarias gariepinus, which is widely considered tobe one of the most important tropical catfish species foraquaculture, has an almost Pan-African distribution, from theNile to West Africa and from Algeria to Southern Africa. Theyalso occur in Minor-Asia (Israel, Syria and South of Turkey).Clarias anguillaris has a more restricted distribution and isfound in Mauritania, in most West African basins and in theNile. In general C. gariepinus lives in most riverbasins sympatrically with C. anguillaris.

2.3 Biology of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)
2.3.1. Description of the Genus and Species
The catfish genus can be defined as displayingan eel shape, having an elongated cylindrical body withdorsal and anal fins being extremely long (nearly reaching orreaching the caudal fin) both fins containing only soft fin rays. The outer pectoral ray is in the form of a spine andthe pelvic fin normally has six soft trays. The head isflattened, highly ossified, the skull bones (above and on thesides) forming a casque and the body is covered with asmooth scaleless skin. The skin is generally darkly pigmentedon the dorsal and lateral parts of the body. The colour isuniform marbled and changes from greyish olive to blackishaccording to the substrate. On exposure to light skin thecolour generally becomes lighter. They have four pairs of unbranched barbels,one nasal, one maxillar (longest and most mobile) on thevomer and two mandibulars (inner and outer) on the jaw.Tooth plates are present on the jaws as well as on the vomer.The major function of the barbels is prey detection.A supra-branchial or accessory respiratoryorgan, composed of a paired pear-shaped air-chambercontaining two arborescent structures is generally present.These arborescent or cauliflower-like structures located onthe secondhand forth branchial arcs, are supported bycartilage and covered by highly vascularised tissue which canabsorb oxygen from atmospheric air (Moussa, 1956). The airchambercommunicates with the pharynx and with the gillchamber.The accessory air breathing organ allows the fish to survive for many hours out of the water or for many weeks in muddy marshes.

2.3.2. Natural food and feeding
Although numerous studies on the foodcomposition of C. gariepinus have been carried out, aconsistent pattern has not emerged and they are generallyclassified as omnivores or predators. Micha (1973) examinedcatfishes from the river Ubangui (Central African Republic)and found that C. lazera (= C. gariepinus) fed mainly onaquatic insects, fish and debris of higher plants. They alsofeed on terrestrial insects, mollusc and fruits.Similarly, Bruton (1979b) found that catfish inLake Sibaya (South Africa) fed mainly on fish or crustacea,and that terrestrial and aquatic insects were an important partof the diet of juvenile and adult fish which inhabit shallowareas. However, molluscs, diatoms, arachnids, plant debriswere the minor food items consumed in this lake.Munro (1967) studied the feeding habits of C.gariepinus in Lake McIIwaine (Zimbabwe) and found that feedcomposition changes as fish became larger. Diptera,particularly chironomid pupae, predominate in the diet of thesmallest group but become progressively less important withincreasing size. Zooplankton became more important withincreasing size and predominates in the diet of the largest fish. Most of the minor food groups also showed aprogressive increase or decrease in importance in relation toincreasing size. The greater importance ofzooplankton in the diet of large fish was believed to be due tothe increased gape and number of gill rakers of the larger fish(Jubb, 1961; Groenewald, 1964); presumably resulting in amore efficient filter feeding. Spataru et al. (1987) studied the feeding habits of C. gariepinus in Lake Kinneret (Israel) and found that preyed fish were the most abundant food component (81%) and constituted the highest biomass.

2.3.3. Natural Reproduction
C. gariepinus shows a seasonal gonadalmaturation which is usually associated with the rainy season.The maturation processes of C. gariepinus are influenced byannual changes in water temperature and photoperiodicityand the final triggering of spawning is caused by a raise inwater level due to rainfall (de Graaf et al., 1995).
Spawning usually takes place at night in theshallow inundated areas of the rivers lakes and streams.Courtship is preceded by highly aggressive encountersbetween males. Courtship and mating takes place in shallowwaters between isolated pairs of males and females. Themating posture, a form of amplexus (the male lies in a U-shapecurved around the head of the female) is held forseveral seconds. A batch of milt and eggs isreleased followed by a vigorous swish of the female's tail todistribute the eggs over a wide area. The pair usually restafter mating (from seconds up to several minutes) and thenresume mating. There is no parental care for ensuring thesurvival of the catfish offspring except by the careful choiceof a suitable site. Development of eggs and larvae is rapid and the larvae are capable of swimming within 48-72 hours after fertilization at 23-28 °C.
2.4. Nutrients Required by Fish
2.4.1. Energy-yielding nutrients
Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids are distinct nutrient groups that the body metabolizes to produce the energy it needs for numerous physiological processes and physical activities. There is considerable variation in the ability of fish species to use the energy-yielding nutrients. This variation is associated with their natural feeding habits, which are classified as herbivorous, omnivorous or carnivorous. Thus, there is a relationship between natural feeding habits and dietary protein requirements. Herbivorous and omnivorous species require less dietary protein than some carnivorous species (NRC, 1993). Carnivorous species are very efficient at using dietary protein and lipid for energy but less efficient at using dietary carbohydrates. The efficient use of protein for energy is largely attributed
to the way in which ammonia from deaminated protein is excreted via the gills with limited energy expenditure. The foods carnivorous species eat contain little carbohydrate, so they use this nutrient less efficiently.
In terms of energy density, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids have average caloric values of 5.65, 4.15 and 9.45 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), respectively. These gross energy values are obtained by fully oxidizing the nutrients and measuring their heat of combustion in a calorimeter, with the energy released expressed as kcal/g or kilojoules (kJ)/g (1 kcal = 4.185 kJ). Not all of the gross energy from nutrients is utilized because some of it is not digested and absorbed for further metabolism. Thus, the amount of digestible energy (DE) provided by a feed or feed ingredient is commonly expressed as a percentage of gross energy. A smaller fraction of the DE absorbed by the fish will be lost in metabolic wastes, including urinary and gill excretions, but these losses are relatively minor compared to the dietary energy excreted in the feces. Because it is hard to collect fish urinary and gill excretions, it is much more difficult to determine metabolizable energy (ME) values for aquatic organisms than for terrestrial animals. Therefore, ME values are not commonly reported for fish feeds or ingredients.


2.4.2. Proteins and Amino Acids
Proteins consist of various amino acids, the composition of which gives individual proteins their unique characteristics. Many of the biochemical required for normal bodily functions is proteins, such as enzymes, hormones and immunoglobulin. Fish, like other animals, synthesize body proteins from amino acids in the diet and from some other sources. Amino acids that must be provided in the diet are called “essential” or “indispensable” amino acids. Quantitative dietary requirements for the ten indispensable amino acids have been determined for several fish species (Wilson, 2002). There are also ten “nonessential” or “dispensable” amino acids that the body can synthesize from other sources. These dispensable amino acids also may be found in dietary protein and used for synthesizing body proteins. A deficiency of any one of the indispensable amino acids can limit protein synthesis, which often causes reduced weight gain and other specific symptoms.
Meeting a fish’s minimum dietary requirement for protein, or a balanced mixture of amino acids, is critical for adequate growth and health. However, providing excessive levels of dietary protein is both economically and environmentally unsound because protein is the most expensive dietary component and excess protein increases the excretion of nitrogenous waste. Most herbivorous and omnivorous fish evaluated to date require a diet with 25 to 35 percent crude protein; carnivorous species may require 40 to 50 percent crude protein (Wilson, 2002). Commercial feeds are carefully formulated to ensure that protein and amino acid requirements are met.
2.4.3. Carbohydrates
Fish do not have a specific dietary requirement for carbohydrates, but including these compounds in diets is an inexpensive source of energy. The ability of fish to utilize dietary carbohydrate for energy varies considerably; many carnivorous species use it less efficiently than do herbivorous and omnivorous species (Wilson, 1994). Some carbohydrate is deposited in the form of glycogen in tissues such as liver and muscle, where it is a ready source of energy. Some dietary carbohydrate is converted to lipid and deposited in the body for energy.
Carbohydrates of various size (carbon chain length) and complexity (one to several units bonded together) are synthesized by plants via photosynthesis. Cellulose and other fibrous carbohydrates are found in the structural components of plants and are indigestible to monogastric (simple-stomach) animals, including fish. In fact, the amount of crude fiber in fish feeds is usually less than 7 percent of the diet to limit the amount of undigested material entering the culture system.
Soluble carbohydrates such as starch are primary energy reserves found in seeds, tubers and other plant structures. Animal tissues such as liver and muscle contain small concentrations of soluble carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, which is structurally similar to starch. This glycogen reserve can be rapidly mobilized when the body needs glucose. Prepared feeds for carnivorous fish usually contain less than 20 percent soluble carbohydrate, while feeds for omnivorous species usually contain 25 to 45 percent. In addition to being a source of energy, soluble carbohydrate in fish feed also gives pellets integrity and stability and makes them less dense.

2.4.4. Lipids
This nutrient group consists of several different compounds. Neutral lipids (fats and oils), in the form of triglycerides, provide a concentrated source of energy for aquatic species. Dietary lipid also supplies essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the organism (Sargent et al., 1995). Fatty acids of the linoleic acid (n-3) family are generally more essential to fish than those of the linoleic acid (n-6) family. The n- or “omega” nomenclature is used to describe fatty acids by the general formula X:Yn-z, where X is the carbon chain length, Y is the number of ethylenic/double bonds, and n-z (or ωz) denotes the position of the first double bond relative to the methyl end of the fatty acid. Thus, 16:0 denotes a saturated fatty acid containing 16 carbons and no double bonds (all carbons saturated with hydrogen), and 18:1n-9 (18:1ω9) designates a monounsaturated fatty acid with 18 carbon atoms and a single double bond that is nine carbon atoms from the methyl end. Many freshwater fish can elongate and desaturate 18-carbon linolenic acid with one double bond to longer chains (20 and 22 carbons) of more highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) with five or six double bonds. In contrast, most marine fish must have HUFA in the diet.
In the body, HUFAs are components of cell membranes (in the form of phosphoglycerides, or phospholipids), especially in neural tissues of the brain and eye. They also serve as precursors of steroid hormones and the highly active eicosanoids produced from 20-carbon HUFAs (Sargent et al., 1995). Eicosanoid compounds include cyclic molecules such as prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane produced by the action of cyclooxygenase, as well as linear compounds such as leukotrienes and lipoxins initially formed by lipoxygenase enzymes. Eicosanoids are responsible for blood clotting, immunological and inflammatory responses, renal function, cardiovascular tone, neural function, and other functions. A diet deficient in essential fatty acids reduces weight gain, but usually after an extended period. This is due to mobilization of essential fatty acids from endogenous tissue lipids.
2.4.5. Minerals
This nutrient group consists of inorganic elements the body requires for various purposes. Fish require the same minerals as terrestrial animals for tissue formation, osmoregulation and other metabolic functions (Lall, 2002). However, dissolved minerals in the water may satisfy some of the metabolic requirements of fish.
Minerals are typically classified as either macro- or microminerals, based on the quantities required in the diet and stored in the body. Macro minerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, chloride, sodium, potassium and sulfur. Dietary deficiencies of most macro minerals have been difficult to produce in fish because of the uptake of waterborne ions by the gills. However, it is known that phosphorus is the most critical macro mineral in fish diets because there is little phosphorus in water. Because excreted phosphorus influences the eutrophication of water, much research has been focused on phosphorus nutrition with the aim of minimizing phosphorus excretion. Phosphorus is a major constituent of hard tissues such as bone and scales and is also present in various biochemicals. Impaired growth and feed efficiency, as well as reduced tissue mineralization and impaired skeletal formation in juvenile fish, are common symptoms when Chloride, sodium and potassium are important electrolytes involved in osmoregulation and the acid–base balance in the body (Lall, 2002). These minerals are usually abundant in water and practical feedstuffs.
Magnesium is involved in intra- and extracellular homeostasis and in cellular respiration. It also is abundant in most feedstuffs.
The micro minerals (also known as trace minerals) include cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium and zinc. Impaired growth and poor feed efficiency are not readily induced with micro mineral deficiencies, but may occur after an extended period of feeding deficient diets (Lall, 2002). The quantitative dietary requirements for some fish species have been established (Lall, 2002).
Copper, iron, manganese, selenium and zinc are the most important to supplement in diets because practical feedstuffs contain low levels of these micro minerals and because interactions with other dietary components may reduce their bioavailability. Although it is not usually necessary to supplement practical diets with other micro minerals, an inexpensive trace mineral premix can be added to nutritionally complete diets to ensure an adequate trace mineral content.

2.4.6. Vitamins
Fifteen vitamins are essential for terrestrial animals and for several fish species that have been examined to date (Halver, 2002) (Table 3). Vitamins are organic compounds required in relatively small concentrations to support specific structural or metabolic functions. Vitamins are divided into two groups based on solubility.
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A (retinol), vitamin D (cholecalciferol), vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) and vitamin K. These fat-soluble vitamins are metabolized and deposited in association with body lipids, so fish can go for long periods without having these vitamins in the diet before they show signs of deficiency.
Water-soluble vitamins include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), biotin, choline, folic acid, inositol, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamin and vitamin B12. They are not stored in appreciable amounts in the body, so signs of deficiency usually appear within weeks in young, rapidly growing fish. Most of these water-soluble vitamins are components of coenzymes that have specific metabolic functions. Detailed information about the functions of these vitamins and the amounts fish need have been established for many cultured fish species (Halver, 2002).
Vitamin premixes are now available to add to prepared diets so that fish receive adequate levels of each vitamin independent of levels in dietary ingredients. This gives producers a margin of safety for losses associated with processing and storage. The stability of vitamins during feed manufacture and storage has been improved over the years with protective coatings and/or chemical modifications. This is particularly evident in the development of various stabilized forms of the very labile ascorbic acid (Halver, 2002). Therefore, vitamin deficiencies are rarely observed in commercial production.


2.5.0. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS BY AFRICAN CATFISH
2.5.1. Larvae and early juveniles
 Common to most species, the larvae and early juveniles (up to approximately 1 g) have a high protein demand of around 55 percent and a lipid requirement of 9 percent. The carbohydrates content can be as high as 21 percent of the diet. A minimum level of 0.5–1 percent dietary n-3 fatty acids has been recommended for Heterobranchus longifilis fry (Kerdchuen, 1992). In the absence of any quantitative information for C. gariepinus and the suggestion made by Uys (1989) that early juveniles grow better if at least 10 percent of the total lipid consists of fish oil, it is recommended that the minimum level as suggested by Kerdchuen (1992) is incorporated into larval feeds. Some work has been undertaken on the qualitative amino acid requirements of larvae (Conceição et al., 1998), but the quantitative requirements of larvae, except for methionine (Uys, 1984) are not known. Similarly, the fatty acid requirements are unknown, except that a 1:1 ratio of n3 and n6 fatty acids appears to be optimal for growth and body condition. The amino acid requirements of early juveniles and from >10 g bodyweight onwards are better understood.
Uys and Hecht (1987) and Uys, Hecht and Walters (1987) reported pancreatic and foregut amylase activity in C. gariepinus larvae. Similarly, Ali and Jauncey (2005a) found that intestinal alpha-amylase activity increased with increasing dietary carbohydrate levels. These findings show that North African catfish are capable of digesting carbohydrates from an early stage and this persists throughout the animal’s lifespan (Uys, 1989).
2.5.2. Grow-out phase (fingerling to market size)
There are some evidences to suggest that the nutrient requirements change at around 5 g in weight and remain fairly constant thereafter. This is largely reflected by a decreasing dietary protein demand. Most of the evidence suggests that the basic nutritional requirements during the grow-out phase range from 40 to 43 percent for protein, 10 to 12 percent for dietary lipid and between 15 and 32 percent for carbohydrate. Optimum digestible energy is between 14 and 16 kJ/g and the protein to energy ratio is optimal between 26 and 29 mg/kJ of digestible energy. The essential amino acid requirements of fish >10 g are fairly well understood. Both animal and plant proteins are well digested and can be used to varying degrees to replace fishmeal and soybean meal in the diet. Least costing of the diet and appetite feeding schedules have shown that profitability can be optimized at dietary protein levels of between 35 and 38 percent. Much of the above is summarized by Van Weerd (1995).
It has been shown that growth is negatively affected if fish oil is used as the sole source of lipid (Ng, Lim and Boey, 2003; Ng et al., 2004), which clearly suggests that the species has a certain requirement for n-6 fatty acids. However, the dietary lipid source does not affect whole-body composition or muscle lipid level in catfish, although fatty acid and alpha-tocopherol levels generally reflect the fatty acid profile and alpha-tocopherol concentration of the dietary lipids that are used (Ng, Lim and Boey, 2003).
It would appear that the average permissible carbohydrate level is around 27 percent, and Ali (2001) suggests that C.gariepinus cannot utilize dietary carbohydrate levels above 35 percent. On the other hand, Pantazis (2005) found that dietary carbohydrate levels of between 26 and 32 percent had a significant protein sparing effect, advocating the greater use of carbohydrates in catfish diet formulation.
Gross energy and digestible energy requirements are around 19 kJ/kg and 14 kJ/kg, respectively, with an average protein to energy ratio of 27 mg/kJ. The protein to energy ratio is however very much dependent on temperature (Henken, Machiels, Dekker and Hogendoorn, 1986) and increases markedly from 25.4 mg/kJ at 24 °C to 34.7 mg/kJ at 29 °C. Body composition in C. gariepinus is not influenced by varying dietary P/E ratios (Ali and Jauncey, 2005a). At a dietary protein content of 40 percent, it appears that the optimal lipid: carbohydrate ratio is around 1:2.5.
The precise vitamin and mineral requirements of C. gariepinus are poorly understood. Experimental results, however, suggest that the requirements by channel catfish (Wilson and Moreau, 1996) more than adequately cater for the needs of North African catfish. These are listed in. Under practical pond-farming conditions, the fish obtain a substantial proportion of their micro-nutrient requirements from the environment. Farmers have found that adding a general vitamin and mineral premix such that it makes up 1 percent of the diet is more than adequate to fulfill micro-nutrient requirements. A more recent study by Ng, Ang and Liew (2001) has shown that mineral supplementation of feed containing 27 percent fishmeal had no beneficial effect on growth of juvenile C. gariepinus. They suggest that it is not necessary to include a mineral mix into diets that contain a high proportion of fishmeal.

2.6.0 PRODUCTION OF COCOYAM LEAVES
Cocoyam in most African countries is mainly cultivated by small-scale farmers. Tannia hasnot received pronounced research attention to enhance its production and utilization potentials despite its nutritional composition, resulting in under utilization of the potential forthe development of value added cocoyam products.Tannia is an herbaceous plant which belongs to the family Araceae. The most availablemembers of the family are taro (Colocasia esculenta) and tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium). The topworld producers of taro (Colocasia esculenta) and tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) are Nigeria, China, Cameroon, and Ghana.The world’s total production of taro in 2011 was 9,532,427 tons while more than 74 percentof the total production comes from Africa. Nigeria being the leading world’s producer oftannia produced more than 27 percent of the total world’s production in 2011. Cocoyam yieldsvary from place to place. The major determinants of the variation are the conditions underwhich they are cultivated.

2.6.1. Nutritive Values of Cocoyam Leaves
Xanthosoma sagittifoliumis one ofthe six most important root and tubers crops worldwide. Corms of cocoyam are known to supply easily digestible starch, substantial amount of protein, thiamine, vitamin C, riboflavin, niacin, as well as significant amounts of dietary fiber. Leaves of tannia are eatenas vegetable by human, having βcarotene, iron, protein, vitamins and folic acid whichprotects against anemia. The major nutrient in tannia corms is dietary energy. The most abundant minerals in Xanthosoma sagittifoliumare potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium. Nutritional composition of roots and tubers vary from place toplace depending on climatic conditions, variety of crop cultivated, as well as soil conditions. The result of the study carried out and revealed that tannia meal contained 7.87%crude protein, 31% dry matter, 4.75% crude fiber, and 3214.91 Kcal/kg metabolisable energyon dry matter basis. The result of proximate analysis carried out on Colocasia esculentaby showed that Colocasia esculenta contained 89.53-90.57% dry matter, 4.93-5.17% crudeprotein, 0.50-0.57% ether extract, 2.70-2.97% crude fiber, 78.7-79.0% carbohydrate and2.47-2.87% ash content on dry matter basis. Xanthosoma sagittifoliumin its raw form is toxic. Thetoxin is however destroyed by processing techniques such as cooking, soaking, ensiling and drying. Cooking has however been shown to reduce the protein content of cocoyam. Note that the physico-chemical properties of sun-dried sample ofXanthosoma sagittifoliumwere more acceptable than oven-dried and cabinet-dried samples, having greater values in most physico-chemical properties considered. It was said that sundriedsample retained the best starch structure.

2.6.2. Anti-Nutritional Factors in Tannia
Xanthosoma sagittifoliumis a cheaper carbohydrate source than grains. It has lowproduction cost, high caloric yield per hectare and are not easily susceptible to pests anddisease attack. Its major limitations in its use in animal nutrition are storage and thepresence of anti-nutritional factors such as tannins, saponins, phytates, oxalates it contains. Some anti-nutritionalfactors serve as defense mechanisms against pests and diseases. For example,oxalates have been observed to play defense role in plant as well as storage reserve for calcium.A toxicant is a substance which under practical circumstances can impair some aspect ofanimal metabolism and produce adverse biological or economic effects in animal product. Anti-nutritional factors are however described as substances in the diets which bythemselves or their metabolic products arising in the system interfere with the feedutilization, thereby reducing production or affect the health of the animals. Toxicants can beclassified based on their chemical properties of effect of their utilization on nutrients asalkaloids, glycosides (such as saponins, cyanogens), phenols (gossypol, tannins),mycotoxins, metal binding (oxalates) and proteins (protease inhibitors and haemoglutinins).

2.6.2.1Saponins
Saponins are known with distinctive foaming characteristics. They are bitter and are knownto reduce feed palatability. Saponins have been reported to cause bloat in ruminants.Bloat is a distension of the rumen resulting from the inability of the animal to get rid of gasesproduced in normal processes to rumen fermentation.
2.6.2.2. Tannins
Tannins are high molecular weight polyphenolic substances. There are hydrolysable andcondensed tannins. Hydrolysable tannins are easily hydrolysed in water, acids, enzymes orbases to yield gallotannins and ellagitannins. Condensed tannins on the other hands areflavonoid polymers of flavonol. They are astringent in nature and bind with protein, therebyreducing protein availability to animals. They are known to inhibit cellulose digestibility aswell as reduction of digestion of crude fiber. Soaking and cooking have however beenreported to reduce tannin content. Moderate level of tannins (usually less than 4%) inforages has been reported to improve growth and milk yield while levels exceeding 6% of thediet has been observed to reduce growth rate and milk production in ruminants.


2.6.2.3. Oxalates
 Calcium oxalate levels are higher in petioles of tannia cocoyam than in leaves. Theauthors reported further that sun-drying, soaking, cooking, and ensiling reduced theconcentration of oxalate. The effects were however most pronounced for cooking andensiling. Oxalates are known to precipitate calcium in the gastrointestinal tract as insolublecalcium oxalate. Diets containing oxalate have been shown to cause calcium deficiency incattle, which consequently resulted in poor milk production and growth. Fresh leaves of tarocontain about 3.08% of oxalate on dry matter basis. The authors reported that theprocess of ensiling the tannia leaves was more effective than sun-drying in reducing thecontent of calcium oxalate.

2.6.2.4. Phytate
Phytate has been observed to decrease the utilization of several mineral elements such asphosphorus, calcium, and magnesium, being the most abundant minerals in Xanthosoma sagittifoliumby forming insoluble compounds which are excreted in faeces. Supplementation ofenzyme phytase is recommended in poultry to make phosphorus available.

2.7. Use of Xanthosoma sagittifoliuminAnimal Nutrition
The result of the study by revealed an apparent reduced digestibility for pigs fed dietscontaining ensiled taro leaves as against the higher values recorded in the findings of.The variation was however attributed to the differences in fibre level of the energy sourcesused in the studies. Studies on boiled taro cocoyam in the diets of weaned pigs carried out by revealed that there was no significant difference in feed intake, weight gain and feedefficiency between the diets containing boiled taro corms. It was exactly opposite with thediets contained unboiled tannia, especially at levels more than 50% replacement of maize. Inanother study by feed intake, rate of live weight gain and feed conversion ratio werepoorest in pigs fed fresh tannia leaves and stem, better responses were obtained for pigs fedcooked tannia leaves and stem, while the best results were obtained for those fed ensiled taroleaves and stem. It was observed that the energy content and proximate metabolisable energy Xanthosoma sagittifolium corms indicated thatXanthosoma sagittifoliumis a potential useful energysupplement in ruminant feeding. The result of a study carried out showed that sundriedtannia meal can replace maize up to 50% in the diet of Achatina achatina without adverse effects on reproductive traits. The authors however recommended that inclusion of tannia in the diet of animals at higher levels should be processed. The author also fed one hundred andforty juveniles of Clarias gariepinus with diets containing graded levels of raw and differently processed cocoyam corms at 25% and 50% substitution levels for maize meal. The result showed the mean weight gain, relative growth rate and specific growth rate had the highest value recorded for the control followed by those fed diet containing 25% boiled cocoyam. The least value was however recorded for those fed diet containing 50% of fermented cocoyam. The authors reported significant lower values for all blood parameters recorded inthe raw cocoyam meal diet. The result indicated that fish fed with boiled cocoyam dietgained higher weight than those fed raw cocoyam diet. It was also reported that boiling of Xanthosoma sagittifolium resulted in an improvement over the raw in broiler finishers fed differently processed Xanthosoma sagittifolium, having no adverse effects on hematological parameters of the birds. It was recommended that proper processing of Xanthosoma sagittifolium meal will effectively replace maize in the diets of broiler finishers at 25%for raw sundried tannia cocoyam meal and 50% for boiled sundried tannia. It has also been observed that silage made from tannia leaves and petioles replaced up to 60 % of rice bran in diets for growing ducks without any decrease in performance, growth and with positive effects on carcass quality. Also, boiled sun-dried tannia cormels had been reported to replace up to 50 % of maize (8.4 % of the total diet) in the diets of Japanese quails. However, concluded that boiled peeled sundried tannia meal can replace maize in the diets of broiler finishers at 100% inclusion level, without any significant adverse effects on the performance characteristics of the birds.

2.8. COST IMPLICATION OF USING TANNIA COCOYAM IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
Energy sources, especially maize are the most important and expensive feedstuffs, which account for about 50-55% of poultry diet. High cost of maize has been observed to result from declining production condition and keen competition for its use by man and animals. Hence, in seeking replacement for maize in animal nutrition, cost implication of the use of the potential non-conventional feedstuffs should be considered. The results of the previous studies revealed that taro is a cheap source of carbohydrates in animal nutrition. It also concluded that there was economic decrease in price of feed with the inclusion of cocoyam meal.
















CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental Site
The experiment was conducted in the wet Laboratory of the Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology, Federal University of technology, Akure, Ondo State. Fifteen (15) glass tanks of the dimension (58×40×38) cm3each and of water holding capacity of 80 liters were used to conduct the experiment. The water level was kept at 32 liters throughout the period of experiment.

3.2. Experimental Fish
Clarias gariepinus fingerlings of 150 pieces were obtained from Mr. Afun fish farm, Oda road, Akure, Ondo State. They were weighed and measured using a sensitive weighing balance with mean weight of 8.65g. The fish were acclimatized to laboratory conditions for three days without before the experiment.
3.3. Experimental Design
The experiment was designed in a completely randomized pattern in which one hundred and fifty (150) fingerlings of Clarias gariepinus with mean weight of 8.65g were randomly selected and distributed into 15 glass aquarium tanks of (70 litres) at 10 fish each representing five treatments in triplicate.
3.4. Experimental Diets
Five diets were formulated out which four contained different forms of cocoyam leaves to reduce the quantity of soya bean meal that should be used for the formulation. Ingredients for the formulation include; Yellow maize, fishmeal, groundnut cake, vegetable oil, starch, methionine, Vitamin premix, lysine, baker’s yeast. The ingredients were thoroughly mixed, pelleted and dried before use. The five treatments for the experiment are:
Treatment 1: This is the control diet which did not contain any form of cocoyam leaves.
Treatment 2: This diet contains 50% sundried cocoyam leaves to replace 50% soya bean meal in the diet.
Treatment 3: This contained 50% soaked cocoyam leaves to replace 50% soya bean meal in the diet.
Treatment 4: In this treatment, we had 46% of sundried cocoyam leaves and 4% of baker’s yeast.
Treatment 5: This contained 50% boiled cocoyam leaves to replace 50% soya bean meal in the fish diet.













Table 1: Gross Composition of the Experimental Diets (g/kg)
_________________________________________________________________________
Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 Diet 5
_________________________________________________________________________
Ingredients
Fishmeal C.P  774 774 774 774 774
65%
Soya bean meal 750 375 375 375 375
C.P 45%
Yellow maize 483 483 483 483 483
Vegetable oil   180 180 180 180 180
Methionine       12 12 12 12 12
Lysine  6 6 6 6 6
Boiled
Cocoyam leaves   - - - - 375
Soaked
Cocoyam leaves - - 375 - -
Sun-dried
Cocoyam leaves   - - - 375 -
Baker’s yeast       - - - 30 -
Starch       30 30 30 30 30
Vit. Premix          15 15 15 15 15
Groundnut cake   750 750 750 750 750
C.P 48%

3.5. Feeding of Experimental fish
After the acclimatization period, administration of the diets to the fish commenced and it was done to satiation, twice daily between the hours of 8.00 and 9.00 a.m, 4.00 and 5.00 p.m for 65 days. Uneaten feed were monitored and siphoned using a hose prior the next feeding exercise. Fish mortality was also monitored and recorded throughout the period of the experiment.

3.6. Weighing of Experimental Fish
The individual weight of each fish was determined immediately after acclimatization with the aid of sensitive weighing balance. The mean weights of the fish per tank were recorded. The weighing continued every two weeks until the experiment was terminated.

3.7. Growth Performance Evaluation
The following growth performance indices were measured:
3.7.1. Weight Gain (g)
This was calculated by subtracting the initial weight from the final weight for the fish in each aquarium.
3.7.2. Specific Growth Rate (SGR)
This was calculated based on the data collected on the body weight of fish over a given time interval which is actually the total number of days for the experiment and it is given below:
SGR (% per day) = (Loge final weight – loge initial weight)    x   100
                                              Time (days)


That is:
 SGR = (Loge W2 – loge W1)     x 100
                              T2-T1

3.7.3. Feed Intake
This is done by adding daily mean feed intake (DFI) of the fish under each treatment for the duration of the experiment.

3.7.4. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)
This is calculated by dividing the total amount of feed given which is feed intake (FI) by the weight gain of the fish (WG). FCR is the proportion of dry feed per unit live weight gain of fish.
FCR =feed intake
             Weight gain (g)

3.8. Water Quality Parameters
Water quality parameter such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and conductivity were measured and monitored throughout the period of experiment.
3.9. Different processing methods of the experimental leaves
The new cocoyam leaves were collected and prepared in different forms such as; sundried, soaked, and boiled.
SUNDRIED NEW COCOYAM LEAVES:
 The leaves were collected from nearby farms. It was collected in large number from the plant stalk and spread on a clean concrete floor to receive direct sunlight. This was done to remove virtually all the moisture present in the leaves through evaporation into the atmosphere so as to make use of it during feed formulation process. As the leaves get dried, the leaves size got reduced by shrinking to small size due to the loss of water, also the colour of the leaves changed from bright green to dirty brown due to the effect of direct sunlight on it. I then used blender to reduce the leaves surface area into fine particles.
ii BOILED COCOYAM LEAVES:
 As the leaves for the dried one was collected so was it for the boiled ones. The leaves were washed with clean water to avoid external contaminants present in the leaves, after that, the leaves were placed inside a clean pot with clean water and boiled using heat from the stove. The leaves while boiling had reduction in size and a change in colour from bright green to brown like a rotten substance. Then, the leaves were removed after the water used in cooking the leaves got boiled at over 100°ᴄ and this happened after 20 minutes of heating. After this, I first use heat from the sunlight to dry the leaves but the intensity of the sunlight was not strong enough to get the leaves dried, I then used oven to remove virtually all the moisture present in the leaves at 65°ᴄ before using an electric blender to blend the dried leaves to fine particles.
iii SOAKED COCOYAM LEAVES:
 The leaves were also collected from the farm and soaked inside a bucket with clean water for 12 hours of which the period lasted overnight. There was no obvious change in the leaves, but a pleasant odour was perceived during the soaking period, then the leaves of the new cocoyam became turgid after the soaking period. After then, I allowed the leaves to dry by sun drying for two days and then oven-dried for additional one day in order to get rid of the moisture present in the leaves completely. Then I used blender to blend the leaves into fine particles and to reduce the surface area.

3.10.0.PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Samples from each diet and were analysed for crude protein, ash, ether extract, fibre and moisture content. Hence, the moisture content, crude protein, crude fibre, lipid, ash and the nitrogen free extract were of the fish diets and ingredients in formulating the diets which is cocoyam leaves: Xanthosoma sagittifolium were determined by proximate analysis.

Moisture Content
Five grams of samples were weighed into a known weight of petri dish and oven dried at temperature between 100-1050c for 6hours. After this, the samples were transferred to a desiccator to cool for 30 minutes and then re-weighed. The weight of the petri dish plus the dried sample was subtracted from the initial weight of the petri dish and sample. The results were recorded in percentage to determine the percentage moisture present in the sample. This was calculated as follows;

% Moisture   = Loss of weight during drying   x   100
                        Weight of sample before drying
That is:
%Moisture=    W2-W3× 100
                        W2-W1

W1= Weight of petri dish
W2= Weight of petri dish and samples
W3= Weight of petri dish and oven dried sample.

Ash Content
The mineral elements were determined in the feed samples by burning off the organic matter and weighing the residue which is known as ash. Such determination tells nothing about specific elements present and the ash may include carbon from organic matter as carbonate when based forming minerals are in excess. The residue from moisture determination was charred over flame making sure the sample did not catch flame. The crucible and the content was then transferred into the muffle furnace set at 550°C and left for 6 hours. The process was continued until the ash was grey or newly white. The crucible and its content was cooled in a desiccator and weighed.

Ash content =    Weight of Ash  × 100
                              Weight of sample

CRUDE PROTEIN
The crude protein in the experimental diets was determined by micro kadjahl procedure. This consisted of three stages namely: Digestion, distillation and titration. Percentage nitrogen was calculated using:
T1-M × 0.014 × V1 × 100
               W1 × V2
T1 = Titration value, M = Molarity of acid, v1 = Volume of digest, V2 = Volume of digest used, W1 = Weight of dried sample.
Lipid Content
The lipid content was determined by subjecting the feed samples to a continuous extraction with petroleum ether using soxhlet apparatus. Petroleum ether was evaporated at the end of extraction and the oil residue represents the fat content.
%Fat content = W2-W3 × 100
                          W2-W1
W1= Weight of filter paper
W2= Weight of filter paper + sample
W3= Weight of sample after extraction

Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE)
This is the measurement of carbohydrate available in the sample. It was calculated by subtraction method.
%NFE = 100 – (%Moisture + %Ash + %Crude fibre + %Crude protein + Lipids)
Crude Fibre Estimation
This was determined by subjecting the residual feed from ether extraction to a successive treatment with boiling acid and alkali of defined concentration.
% SGR =   log of Final weight – log of Initial weight  × 100
                                     Time interval

Weekly Growth Rate
Weekly growth rate was calculated by the relationship between the increase in weight per week and body weight the fish.
WGR = Increase in weight per week
                        Body weight
Survival Rate
 The survival rate was calculated using the formula below.

%SR =    Number of survived fish  × 100
                Total number of fish stocked

Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)
This was calculated by using the protein intake of the fish to divide the weight gained by the fish.
That is:
PER= Fish Weight gained/Protein gained





CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. RESULT
4.1 GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF C.GARIEPINUS FINGERLINGS FED WITH DIFFERENT FORMS OF COCOYAM LEAVES
The experiment revealed that the fish fingerlings fed with diet that has boiled cocoyam leaves performed best in terms of growth and nutrients utilization. Also, the statistical analysis affirmed this because p˂ 0.05 for diet 5. Table 4.1 revealed the growth and nutrients utilization of Clarias gariepinus fingerlings fed with differently processed cocoyam leaves. Introduction of these cocoyam leaves in different forms to their diets was accompanied by decrease in their final weight except for treatment five with boiled cocoyam leaves and treatment three. The highest was recorded in treatment five which was fed with boiled cocoyam leaves, near to this was the fish fed with soaked cocoyam leaves. Weight gained, specific growth rate increased in the diet five due to proteins and high level of carbohydrate as a result of increase in cocoyam leaves present in the diets. Least feed intake was observed in treatment two that was fed with sundried cocoyam leaves. There was no significant difference in the feed conversion ratio as this was recorded high in treatment five fed with boiled cocoyam leaves and low in treatment two fed with boiled cocoyam leaves. The group in treatment five had best feed conversion ratio, while the group in treatment two recorded low feed conversion ratio.



Table 4.1: Growth and nutrients utilization of Clarias gariepinus fingerlings fed with different forms of cocoyam leaves
______________________________________________________________________________                            
Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 Diet 5
______________________________________________________________________________
Parameters
______________________________________________________________________________
Initial mean 8.78±0.20a 8.55±0.03a 8.63±0.13a 8.64±0.12a 8.64±0.13a
body weight (g)
Final mean 12.82±1.69ab 11.90±1.59a 13.46±0.75ab 12.54±1.20a 15.77±2.24b
body weight (g)
Weight gain (g) 4.04±1.54a 3.35±1.61a 4.83±0.62ab 4.09±0.98a 7.13±2.12b
Specific growth 0.57±0.18a 0.50±0.20a 0.68±0.06ab 0.52±0.14a 0.91±0.20b
Rate (% / day)
Feed intake (g) 15.61±3.38ab 12.73±2.97a 19.47±4.03bc 14.07±2.92ab 21.74±2.51c
Feed conversion 4.08±0.89a 4.12±0.97a 4.00±0.36a 3.48±0.31a 3.16±0.56a
Ratio
% Survival 80.00±10.00ab 90.00±10.00b 73.33±5.77a 90.00±0.00b 73.33±5.77a
PER 0.63±0.12a 1.38±1.20a 0.62±0.06a 0.71±0.06a 0.81±0.16a
______________________________________________________________________________
Mean value ± Standard deviation. Mean in the same row with different letters are significantly different from each other at (P<0.05)

4.2. Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water
The physic-chemical parameters of the water which served as the medium or the environment of these fingerlings was recorded so as to monitor the development of these fish during the experiment. The temperature ranged from 25.8-28.6°C due to the atmospheric weather condition during the period of the experiment. The hydrogen ion concentration which is the pH ranged from 7.5 – 8.9. The Dissolved oxygen (DO) ranged between 6.5 – 7.7mg/l.

Table 4.2: Proximate composition of differently processed of Cocoyam leaves Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Sundried Soaked Boiled
___________________________________________________________________________
Parameter
( %)
___________________________________________________________________________
Moisture 12.33 12.67 10.67
Ash 10.00 14.00 8.00
Protein 26.25 21.00 19.25
Lipids 8.00 14.00 14.00
NFE 43.42 38.33 48.08
%NFE= (100- %moisture+ %Ash+ %Protein+ %Lipids)
NFE is Nitrogen Free Extract


Table 4.3: Proximate analysis of Experimental Diets
Control, Diet 1, Diet 2, Diet 3, Diet 4
Parameters
(%)
Moisture 6.00 8.00 11.20 12.00 10.00
Ash 12.00 4.00 2.00 8.00 4.00
Protein 31.5 28.0 35.00 33.25 33.25
Lipids 12.00 20.00 18.00 18.00 14.00
NFE 38.50 40.00 33.80 28.75 38.75
%NFE= (100- %moisture+ %Ash+ %Protein+ %Lipids)
NFE is Nitrogen Free Extract

4.3. DIFFERENT ANTI-NUTRIENTS PRESENT IN EXPERIMENTAL LEAVES Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Table 4.4: Tannin (mg/g)
A
6.04077
6.04077

B
4.883457
4.883457

C
5.516197
5.516197

A= Soaked B=Boiled C=Sundried




Table 4.5: Oxalate (mg/g)
A
0.4502
0.4502

B
0.09004
0.09004

C
0.27012
0.27012

A= Soaked B=Boiled C=Sundried

Table 4.6: Phytate (mg/g)
A
17.304
17.304

B
13.184
13.184

C
14.832
14.832

A= Soaked B=Boiled C=Sundried

A=Soaked cocoyam leaves
B=Boiled cocoyam leaves
C=Sundried cocoyam leaves








Table 4.7: Proximate composition of fish carcass

Diet 1
Diet 2
Diet 3
Diet 4
Diet 5

Parameters (%)






Moisture
6.89±1.34a
6.78±1.95a
9.56±2.14a
6.78±0.69a
7.67±1.85a

Ash
15.33±1.15ab
18.00±2.00b
13.33±2.31a
14.67±3.06ab
14.00±2.00ab

Crude protein
61.60±0.46c
58.24±1.50b
61.19±0.44c
61.83±0.53c
56.00±0.35a

Crude Fat
13.33±1.15a
14.00±2.00a
14.67±1.15a
15.33±3.06a
16.67±2.31a

NFE
2.84±0.85ab
2.98±1.79ab
1.25±1.18a
1.39±0.33a
5.67±3.54a

Mean in the same row with different letters are significantly different from each other at P<0.05














Table4.8: Minerals analysis of the fish carcass

Diet 1
Diet 2
Diet 3
Diet 4
Diet 5

Minerals (mg/g)






Mn
4.73±0.31b
3.57±0.31a
5.13±0.25b
7.67±0.25c
9.70±0.26d

Mg
18.88±0.04e
17.46±0.05d
14.71±0.25a
16.97±0.03c
15.55±0.03b

Ca
25.76±0.01e
22.6.5±0.00b
22.61±0.00a
24.05±0.04d
22.75±0.00c

Zn
12.51±0.04b
12.61±0.02c
12.05±0.01a
14.03±0.02e
12.80±0.03d

P
72.64±0.01e
44.06±0.01a
57.38±0.01c
56.64±0.00b
61.95±0.00d

Mean in the same row with different letters are significantly different from each other at (P<0.05)












4.4 DISCUSSION
In the growth and nutrients utilization of the fish, C.gariepinus fingerlings fed with diet that has boiled cocoyam leaves performed best in terms of growth and nutrients utilization. This is as a result of low anti-nutrients such as; Calcium oxalate, phytate and tannin present in the cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium). The anti-nutrients were removed by boiling the cocoyam leaves in order to make the leaves suitable for formulation of the fingerlings feed. This was done because cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) have some anti-nutrients called tannin, phytate, and calcium oxalate with the IUPAC name of calcium ethanedioate (Ca(COO)2) which can cause intense sensations of burning in the mouth and throat, swelling, and choking, severe digestive upset, breathing difficulties, coma, liver and kidney damage or even death to the fish Adejumo et al., 2013. Therefore, it is expedient to boil the leaves so as to remove these anti-nutrients. The fish fed with boiled cocoyam leaves performed best in the experiment, close to it was the fish fed with diet that has soaked cocoyam leaves, the fish performed better, then the least of them all, are the fish fed with sundried cocoyam leaves. Their performance level was very low. Feed conversion ratio, mean weight gain, specific growth rate, feed intake, and protein efficiency ratio was recorded high in African catfish fingerlings fed with boiled cocoyam leaves having mean weight gain of 7.13±2.12g, then in the fish fed with soaked new cocoyam leaves with mean weight gain of 4.83±0.62g. All these growth parameters were recorded low in the fingerlings fed with sundried cocoyam leaves with mean weight gain of 3.35±1.61.The proximate analysis of the cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) revealed that the leaves have high crude fat content, this is supported by Frank, (1997) and Fuglie, (2001) who reported that crude fat content is highest in cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) compared to Moringa oleifera leaves, Amaranthus spp and water lily.The proximate analysis also revealed that the crude protein (26.25%) present in the sundried cocoyam leaves is higher than soaked and boiled ones. More so, the levels of anti-nutrients present in the experimental leaves; cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) are different. Tannin (mg/g) is at low level (4.883457) in boiled cocoyam leaves, then high (6.04077) in soaked cocoyam leaves, while phytate (mg/g) is high in soaked cocoyam leaves at (17.304) and low in boiled cocoyam leaves (13.184). Also, oxalate (mg/g) is high in soaked cocoyam leaves (0.4502) and low in boiled cocoyam leaves (0.09004).
The mineral analysis of the fish carcass also revealed that manganese (Mn) concentration is highest in fish fed with diet 5; therefore, it is significantly different from all other diets. Also, magnesium (Mg) is highest in the fish fed with diet 1 and it is significantly different from the remaining diets. The Calcium (Ca) level of the fish carcass is highest in diet 1; it is significantly different from all other diets. Zinc (Zn) concentration is much in fish carcass fed with diet 4, it is therefore significantly different from all other diets. Phosphorus (P) is highest in diet 1; therefore it is significantly different from diets 2, 3, 4 and 5. According to Ndabikunze et al. (2011) who worked on the mineral analysis of cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), he discovered the following mineral contents in the leaves based on his analysis. All the contents according to him remain in (mg/100g DM); Phosphorus 207.50, Zinc 2.72, Manganese 1.55, Calcium 110.17 Magnesium 90.6. But according to the mineral analysis carried out on the fish carcass used in this project, I discovered the following minerals in the fish carcass based on their diets. All mineral contents in (mg/g); Manganese (9.70), compared to 1.55 of Ndabikunze et al. (2011), Magnesium (18.88) which is different from 90.6 gotten by Ndabikunze et al. (2011). Calcium (25.76) , Zinc (12.80) , and Phosphorus (72.64)  compared to 207.50 gotten by Ndabikunze et al. (2011).




CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

Tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) is not well known to fish farmers because it is not in great demand for fish feed. The use of tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) in animal nutrition should be maximally exploited as a way of reducing the competition between man and animals for its utilization, since the quantity of grains produced in tropical Africa is not sufficient to feed the increasing human population. Heat treatment is however recommended for optimal use of (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) in animal nutrition. I thereby conclude that, tannia leaf is a good supplement of soybeans meal in fish feed production.














RECOMMENDATION
The research analysis done on tannia leaf (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) showed that the gap between the protein and carbohydrate levels present in the leaves. I therefore, recommend that the cocoyam leaves (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) should be used to supplement soybean meal in formulating fish diets, most especially in the feed of African catfish C.gariepinus so as to reduce the cost of feeding the fish during production cycle.

















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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Analysis of Variance on fish growth performance



[DataSet0]

Descriptives




N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Between- Component Variance








Lower Bound
Upper Bound




Initialweight
control
3
8.7800
.20421
.11790
8.2727
9.2873
8.62
9.01



treatment 1
3
8.5533
.02517
.01453
8.4908
8.6158
8.53
8.58



treatment2
3
8.6267
.12662
.07311
8.3121
8.9412
8.53
8.77



treatment 3
3
8.6367
.11590
.06692
8.3487
8.9246
8.53
8.76



treatment 4
3
8.6433
.12741
.07356
8.3268
8.9598
8.56
8.79



Total
15
8.6480
.13550
.03499
8.5730
8.7230
8.53
9.01



Model
Fixed Effects


.13269
.03426
8.5717
8.7243






Random Effects



.03674
8.5460
8.7500


.00088

Finalweight
control
3
12.8167
1.69356
.97778
8.6096
17.0237
11.19
14.57



treatment 1
3
11.9033
1.59080
.91845
7.9516
15.8551
10.56
13.66



treatment2
3
13.4567
.74661
.43106
11.6020
15.3114
12.88
14.30



treatment 3
3
12.5367
1.20384
.69504
9.5462
15.5272
11.17
13.44



treatment 4
3
15.7700
2.23578
1.29083
10.2160
21.3240
13.80
18.20



Total
15
13.2967
1.91769
.49514
12.2347
14.3586
10.56
18.20



Model
Fixed Effects


1.57506
.40668
12.3905
14.2028






Random Effects



.66680
11.4453
15.1480


1.39615

Weightgain
control
3
4.0367
1.54027
.88928
.2104
7.8629
2.48
5.56



treatment 1
3
3.3500
1.61453
.93215
-.6607
7.3607
1.98
5.13



treatment2
3
4.8300
.62000
.35796
3.2898
6.3702
4.35
5.53



treatment 3
3
4.0867
.98277
.56740
1.6453
6.5280
2.97
4.82



treatment 4
3
7.1267
2.12024
1.22412
1.8597
12.3936
5.22
9.41



Total
15
4.6860
1.83769
.47449
3.6683
5.7037
1.98
9.41



Model
Fixed Effects


1.47138
.37991
3.8395
5.5325






Random Effects



.65358
2.8714
6.5006


1.41418

FConsumed
control
3
15.6133
3.38349
1.95346
7.2083
24.0184
12.65
19.30



treatment 1
3
12.7267
2.96564
1.71221
5.3596
20.0937
9.58
15.47



treatment2
3
19.4700
4.02646
2.32468
9.4677
29.4723
15.67
23.69



treatment 3
3
14.0733
2.91507
1.68302
6.8319
21.3148
11.17
17.00



treatment 4
3
21.7433
2.51106
1.44976
15.5055
27.9812
19.05
24.02



Total
15
16.7253
4.41939
1.14108
14.2780
19.1727
9.58
24.02



Model
Fixed Effects


3.20183
.82671
14.8833
18.5674






Random Effects



1.68779
12.0393
21.4114


10.82589

FCR
control
3
4.0767
.89131
.51460
1.8625
6.2908
3.47
5.10



treatment 1
3
4.1067
.96759
.55864
1.7030
6.5103
3.01
4.84



treatment2
3
4.0033
.35726
.20626
3.1159
4.8908
3.60
4.28



treatment 3
3
3.4767
.31342
.18095
2.6981
4.2553
3.14
3.76



treatment 4
3
3.1600
.55973
.32316
1.7695
4.5505
2.55
3.65



Total
15
3.7647
.69175
.17861
3.3816
4.1477
2.55
5.10



Model
Fixed Effects


.67377
.17397
3.3770
4.1523






Random Effects



.18971
3.2379
4.2914


.02864

SGR
control
3
.5733
.17559
.10138
.1371
1.0095
.39
.74



treatment 1
3
.4967
.20404
.11780
-.0102
1.0035
.32
.72



treatment2
3
.6800
.06245
.03606
.5249
.8351
.63
.75



treatment 3
3
.5167
.14224
.08212
.1633
.8700
.42
.68



treatment 4
3
.9133
.19604
.11319
.4263
1.4003
.73
1.12



Total
15
.6360
.21033
.05431
.5195
.7525
.32
1.12



Model
Fixed Effects


.16434
.04243
.5415
.7305






Random Effects



.07630
.4242
.8478


.02011

PER
control
3
.6300
.12288
.07095
.3247
.9353
.49
.72



treatment 1
3
1.3833
1.19985
.69273
-1.5973
4.3639
.56
2.76



treatment2
3
.6233
.05859
.03383
.4778
.7689
.58
.69



treatment 3
3
.7133
.05508
.03180
.5765
.8501
.66
.77



treatment 4
3
.8067
.15535
.08969
.4208
1.1926
.68
.98



Total
15
.8313
.54640
.14108
.5287
1.1339
.49
2.76



Model
Fixed Effects


.54504
.14073
.5178
1.1449






Random Effects



.14196
.4372
1.2255


.00174

PSurvival
control
3
80.0000
10.00000
5.77350
55.1586
104.8414
70.00
90.00



treatment 1
3
90.0000
10.00000
5.77350
65.1586
114.8414
80.00
100.00



treatment2
3
73.3333
5.77350
3.33333
58.9912
87.6755
70.00
80.00



treatment 3
3
90.0000
.00000
.00000
90.0000
90.0000
90.00
90.00



treatment 4
3
73.3333
5.77350
3.33333
58.9912
87.6755
70.00
80.00



Total
15
81.3333
9.90430
2.55728
75.8485
86.8182
70.00
100.00



Model
Fixed Effects


7.30297
1.88562
77.1319
85.5348






Random Effects



3.74166
70.9448
91.7218


52.22222



Test of Homogeneity of Variances


Levene Statistic
df1
df2
Sig.

Initialweight
2.491
4
10
.110

Finalweight
.858
4
10
.521

Weightgain
1.002
4
10
.451

FConsumed
.192
4
10
.937

FCR
2.417
4
10
.118

SGR
.805
4
10
.549

PER
11.751
4
10
.001

PSurvival
1.500
4
10
.274



ANOVA



Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.

Initialweight
Between Groups
.081
4
.020
1.150
.388


Within Groups
.176
10
.018




Total
.257
14




Finalweight
Between Groups
26.677
4
6.669
2.688
.093


Within Groups
24.808
10
2.481




Total
51.485
14




Weightgain
Between Groups
25.630
4
6.407
2.960
.075


Within Groups
21.650
10
2.165




Total
47.280
14




FConsumed
Between Groups
170.918
4
42.729
4.168
.031


Within Groups
102.517
10
10.252




Total
273.435
14




FCR
Between Groups
2.160
4
.540
1.189
.373


Within Groups
4.540
10
.454




Total
6.699
14




SGR
Between Groups
.349
4
.087
3.233
.060


Within Groups
.270
10
.027




Total
.619
14




PER
Between Groups
1.209
4
.302
1.018
.444


Within Groups
2.971
10
.297




Total
4.180
14




PSurvival
Between Groups
840.000
4
210.000
3.938
.036


Within Groups
533.333
10
53.333




Total
1373.333
14






Robust Tests of Equality of Meansb



Statistica
df1
df2
Sig.

Initialweight
Welch
1.183
4
4.241
.432


Brown-Forsythe
1.150
4
6.351
.414

Finalweight
Welch
1.298
4
4.788
.387


Brown-Forsythe
2.688
4
7.322
.116

Weightgain
Welch
1.351
4
4.737
.373


Brown-Forsythe
2.960
4
6.951
.101

FConsumed
Welch
3.847
4
4.972
.087


Brown-Forsythe
4.168
4
9.010
.035

FCR
Welch
1.321
4
4.817
.380


Brown-Forsythe
1.189
4
6.315
.400

SGR
Welch
1.915
4
4.614
.255


Brown-Forsythe
3.233
4
7.952
.074

PER
Welch
1.299
4
4.740
.388


Brown-Forsythe
1.018
4
2.128
.545

PSurvival
Welch
.
.
.
.


Brown-Forsythe
.
.
.
.

a. Asymptotically F distributed.




b. Robust tests of equality of means cannot be performed for PSurvival because at least one group has 0 variance.



Means Plots

























Post Hoc Tests

Homogeneous Subsets

Initialweight

Duncan



Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1

treatment 1
3
8.5533

treatment2
3
8.6267

treatment 3
3
8.6367

treatment 4
3
8.6433

control
3
8.7800

Sig.

.083

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



Finalweight

Duncan




Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1
2

treatment 1
3
11.9033


treatment 3
3
12.5367


control
3
12.8167
12.8167

treatment2
3
13.4567
13.4567

treatment 4
3

15.7700

Sig.

.286
.053

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



Weightgain

Duncan




Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1
2

treatment 1
3
3.3500


control
3
4.0367


treatment 3
3
4.0867


treatment2
3
4.8300
4.8300

treatment 4
3

7.1267

Sig.

.277
.085

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



FConsumed

Duncan





Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1
2
3

treatment 1
3
12.7267



treatment 3
3
14.0733
14.0733


control
3
15.6133
15.6133


treatment2
3

19.4700
19.4700

treatment 4
3


21.7433

Sig.

.317
.077
.405

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



FCR

Duncan



Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1

treatment 4
3
3.1600

treatment 3
3
3.4767

treatment2
3
4.0033

control
3
4.0767

treatment 1
3
4.1067

Sig.

.144

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



SGR

Duncan




Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1
2

treatment 1
3
.4967


treatment 3
3
.5167


control
3
.5733


treatment2
3
.6800
.6800

treatment 4
3

.9133

Sig.

.231
.113

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



PER

Duncan



Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1

treatment2
3
.6233

control
3
.6300

treatment 3
3
.7133

treatment 4
3
.8067

treatment 1
3
1.3833

Sig.

.147

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.



PSurvival

Duncan




Diets
N
Subset for alpha = 0.05



1
2

treatment2
3
73.3333


treatment 4
3
73.3333


control
3
80.0000
80.0000

treatment 1
3

90.0000

treatment 3
3

90.0000

Sig.

.311
.140

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.